|
The Ho-Chunk, sometimes called Winnebago, are a Siouan-speaking tribe of Native Americans, native to the present-day states of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and parts of Iowa and Illinois. Today the two separate federally recognized related Native tribes are the Ho-Chunk Nation of Wisconsin and Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska. The Ho-Chunk Nation of Wisconsin has territory primarily on land spread over Dane, Jackson, Juneau, Monroe, Sauk, Shawano, and Wood Counties, Wisconsin. The Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska live on a Federal Reservation in Nebraska. While related, the two tribes are distinct federally recognized as sovereign Nations and peoples, each having their own constitutionally formed governments, and completely separate governing and business interests. Since the late 20th century, the two tribal councils have authorized the development of gambling casinos to generate revenues to support economic development, infrastructure, health care and education. The Ho-Chunk Nation is working on language restoration and has developed a Hocąk-language "app" for the iPhone. Since 1988, it has pursued a claim to the Badger Army Ammunition Plant as traditional territory; it has since been declared surplus, but the Ho-Chunk have struggled with changes in policy at the Department of the Interior. It supported their claim in 1998 but in 2011 refused to accept the property on their behalf. To build on its revenues from casinos, the Winnebago Tribe created an economic development corporation in 1994; it has grown and received awards as a model of entrepreneurial small business. With a number of subsidiaries, it employs more than 1400 people. It has also contributed to housing construction on the reservation. Like more than 60% of federally recognized tribes, it has legalized alcohol sales on the reservation in order to retain revenues that used to go to the state in retail taxes. The Ho-Chunk were the dominant tribe in their territory in the 16th century, with a population estimated at several thousand. Their traditions hold that they have always lived in the area. Ethnologists have speculated that, like some other Siouan peoples, the Ho-Chunk originated along the East Coast and migrated west in ancient times. Perrot wrote that the names given to them by neighboring Algonquian peoples may have referred to their origin near a salt water sea. The Ho-Chunk suffered severe population losses in the 17th century, to a low of perhaps as few as 500. This has been attributed to the loss of hundreds of warriors in a lake storm, epidemics of infectious disease, and competition for resources from migrating Algonquian tribes. By the early 1800s, their population had increased to 2,900, but they suffered further losses in the smallpox epidemic of 1836. In 1990 they numbered 7,000; current estimates of total population of the two tribes are 12,000. ==Etymology== The Winnebago speak a Siouan language and their name for themselves, or autonym, is ''Ho-Chunk'' (Hocąk). It has had numerous spelling variations: ''Hocak, Hotanke, Houchugarra, Hotcangara, Ochungaraw, Ochungarah, Hochungra〔 Hochungara,'' and ''Ochangara'', as Europeans tried to transliterate the name. Translations include: "the fish eaters," "the trout people," "the big fish people",〔Radin, p.5〕 "the big speech people," "the people of the big voice," "the people of the parent speech",〔 and "the people of the original language." Current elders say it means, "the people of the big voice" or "the people of the sacred language."〔 The term "Winnebago" was derived from an exonym, that is, a name given to the people by others, in this case, the neighboring Algonquian-speaking tribes, such as the Fox, Sauk, and Ojibway (Ojibwe/Chippewa). Various spellings exist, reflecting the French and English colonists' attempts to record transliterations of the Algonquian words for the people. These include: "Winnebago, Wiinibiigoo, Wuinebagoes, Ouinepegi, Ouinipegouek, and Winipeg". This name has been variously translated as, "people of the stinking water," "people of the filthy water,"〔 "people of the stagnant water'" and "people of the smelly waters." The Algonquian words do not have the negative overtones associated with the French word ''puant'' and the English word "stinky." The French translated and shortened the name to simply ''les puants'' (or ''les puans''), which was translated into English as "the Stinkards." Many researchers believe that the waters referred to were either stagnant waters of Green Bay or the aromatic, algae-filled waters of the rivers or lakes where the Winnebago were living in the mid-17th century. The earliest reports indicate that both the French explorers and the First Nations people understood the name to refer to their place of origin, not where they were living at the time of European encounter. They had migrated from earlier territories. While the names ''Lac des Puans'' (for Lake Michigan on a map from 1650 ) and ''Le Baye des Puans'' (on later maps) led some historians to conclude these referred to the condition of the waters, early records of both bodies reported them as clear and fresh. The waters were named after the American Indian people then living on their shores. The Jesuit Relations of 1659-1660 said: 〔http://puffin.creighton.edu/jesuit/relations/relations_45.html〕 Nicholas Perrot was an early 20th-century historian who believed that the Algonquian terms referred to salt-water seas, as these have a distinctive aroma compared with fresh-water lakes.〔Among them Nicholas Perrot, ''et al''; (''The Indian Tribes of the Upper Mississippi Valley and Region of the Great Lakes'' ); Emma Helen Blair, Ed.; Arthur H. Clark Company; Cleveland; 1911; Vol. 1, p. 288, note 199〕 An early Jesuit record says that the name refers to the origin of ''Le Puans'' near the salt water seas to the north.〔("Origins of the French and English Names for the Bay of Green Bay" ), ''Wisconsin's French Connections'', University of Wisconsin-Green Bay Library〕 Algonquians also called the Winnebago, "the people of the sea." (A Native people who lived on the shores of Hudson Bay were called by the same name.) When the explorers Jean Nicolet and Samuel de Champlain learned of the "sea" connection to the tribe's name, they were optimistic that it meant ''Les puans'' were from or had lived near the Pacific Ocean. They hoped it indicated a passage to China via the great rivers of the Midwest. In recent studies, ethnologists say that the Winnebago, like the other Siouan-speaking peoples, originated or coalesced on the east coast of North America and gradually migrated west.〔(Winnebago Indian Tribe )〕 The early 20th-century researcher H.R. Holand said they originated in Mexico, where they had contact with the Spanish and gained a knowledge of horses. He cites the records of Jonathan Carver, who lived with the Winnebago in 1766–1768.〔Holand, Hjalmar R., ''History of Door County: The County Beautiful'', Volume 1, S.J. Clarke Publishing Co, Chicago, 1917; reprinted 1993 by Wm Caxton Ltd, Ellison Bay, WI, page 38〕 But, contact with the Spanish could have occurred along the Gulf of Mexico or the south Atlantic coast, where other Siouan tribes originated and lived for centuries. Others suggested that the Winnebago originated in salt water areas, to explain how mid-western tribes had a knowledge of the Pacific Ocean, which they described as where the earth ends and the sun "sets into the sea." The Ho-Chunk say that their people have always lived in what is now the north central United States.〔(About Us ) from Ho-ChunkNation.com〕 Linguistic and ethnographic studies have generated other deep histories of the various American Indian peoples. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Ho-Chunk」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
|